Friday, October 30, 2026

How Private And PSB Banks Improved After 2014



The irregularities and bad loans in Indian banks did not suddenly appear overnight, nor were they undetectable solely due to a lack of regulatory power. Instead, their late exposure was the result of a structural shift in regulatory accounting rules, data infrastructure, and political-economic incentives.


The reasons these irregularities stayed hidden prior to 2014, and the mechanisms through which they were uncovered post-2014, involve several key factors:


Why Irregularities Stayed Hidden Before 2014

1. Permitted Regulatory "Evergreening" (Regulatory Forbearance)

Following the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, central banks globally relaxed recognition rules to prevent an economic freeze. The RBI introduced several restructuring schemes (such as Corporate Debt Restructuring or CDR).

  • Under these rules, banks could extend loan tenures, lower interest rates, or offer fresh loans to stressed borrowers so they could pay off old debts.
  • Crucially, the accounting rules allowed banks to classify these restructured loans as standard performing assets rather than Non-Performing Assets (NPAs).
  • Banks took advantage of this loophole to "extend and pretend"—rolling over bad corporate debt without setting aside capital provisions.

2. Information Asymmetry and Siloed Lending

Before 2014, there was no centralized database tracking corporate exposures across different lenders in real time:

  • A corporate group could default on an Axis Bank loan while taking a fresh loan from ICICI Bank or a PSU bank to service the existing interest.
  • Each bank evaluated borrower risk in isolation, leaving regulators and other lenders blind to the borrower's total consolidated leverage across the financial system.

3. Political Economy of the Infrastructure Boom (2004–2011)

Between 2004 and 2011, India experienced a massive private-led infrastructure boom in power plants, highways, steel, and telecom.

  • Public Sector Banks (PSBs) and private banks engaged in aggressive consortium lending.
  • When projects stalled due to environmental clearances, land acquisition delays, and policy paralysis (such as the coal block and 2G cancellations), classifying them immediately as NPAs would have crippled GDP growth and triggered bank capital crises.
  • Consequently, both the government and the regulator tolerated forbearance to keep project credit flowing.

4. Discretionary Audits and "Window Dressing"

Private banks routinely used financial engineering to mask distress. By selling stressed debt to Asset Reconstruction Companies (ARCs) in exchange for Security Receipts (SRs), banks delayed recognizing actual cash losses, keeping reported NPA figures artificially pristine.


How They Were Exposed and Dismantled Post-2014


The exposure of these loans began with a deliberate regulatory overhaul between 2014 and 2018, driven by RBI Governors Raghuram Rajan and Urjit Patel, backed by legislative reforms from the central government.


1. Creation of CRILC (2014)

In early 2014, the RBI established the Central Repository of Information on Large Credits (CRILC).

  • All banks were mandated to report every borrower with aggregate exposure of ₹5 crore or more.
  • This eliminated the silo effect: if a corporate defaulted with one bank for more than 60 days (Special Mention Account-2 or SMA-2), every other bank and the RBI could see it immediately. Multiple-banking fraud and debt-shuffling became impossible to conceal.

2. The 2015 Asset Quality Review (AQR)

In mid-2015, RBI Governor Raghuram Rajan initiated the landmark Asset Quality Review (AQR).

  • The RBI conducted its own parallel, deep-dive audit of bank balance sheets, bypassing the banks' internal auditor assessments.
  • The RBI applied uniform asset classification: if a borrower was deemed non-viable at Bank A, Banks B, C, and D were forced to downgrade that borrower to an NPA as well, regardless of whether payments were currently being made.
  • This forced banks to write off legacy bad debts, causing reported NPAs across both public and private sectors to spike from ~₹2.8 lakh crore in 2015 to over ₹10 lakh crore by 2018.

3. Enforcing "Divergence Disclosures" (2017)

Under Urjit Patel, the RBI introduced a regulation requiring banks to publicly disclose any discrepancy where the RBI's audit found NPAs exceeding the bank's reported NPAs by more than 15%.

  • This exposed private lenders that had claimed superior asset quality.
  • Axis Bank, Yes Bank, and ICICI Bank reported divergences running into thousands of crores.
  • These mandatory divergence disclosures directly triggered board-level interventions, leading to the regulatory removal of CEOs like Shikha Sharma and Rana Kapoor.

4. The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC, 2016)

Prior to 2016, recovery mechanisms (SARFAESI Act, Debt Recovery Tribunals) were slow and heavily favored defaulting promoters.

  • The enactment of the IBC shifted control from borrower to creditor upon default.
  • In 2017, the central government amended the Banking Regulation Act via an Ordinance, empowering the RBI to directly order banks to initiate insolvency proceedings against India’s largest defaulting conglomerates ("The Dirty Dozen", such as Bhushan Steel and Essar Steel).

5. Abolition of All Restructuring Schemes (February 12, 2018 Circular)

Urjit Patel’s RBI issued the historic February 12, 2018 circular that scrapped all legacy restructuring schemes (CDR, SDR, S4A). A single-day default on a ₹2,000+ crore loan triggered a 180-day resolution timeline, failing which the account had to go to the IBC. While the Supreme Court later adjusted certain procedural technicalities, the culture of evergreen loan forbearance was permanently closed.


Institutional Freedom vs. Political Will

The exposure of bank irregularities was a convergence of both institutional initiatives and political backing:

  • RBI’s Statutory Powers Were Already in Place: The RBI has possessed extensive statutory powers over private banks under the Banking Regulation Act of 1949 (including Section 35A to issue binding directives, Section 36AB to appoint additional directors, and Section 35B to approve or remove CEOs). What changed was not the creation of these core legal powers, but their aggressive, uncompromising enforcement.

  • Political Alignment to Absorb the Shock: Recognizing trillions of rupees in bad loans depressed corporate earnings, triggered massive balance sheet losses, and slowed credit growth for years. The central government supported this balance sheet clean-up, absorbed the political and economic costs of surging reported NPAs, enacted the IBC, and recapitalized public sector banks to absorb the losses.


2014 के बाद भारतीय बैंकिंग क्षेत्र में हुए नीतिगत बदलावों, आरबीआई की सख्त निगरानी और बैंकों के पुनरुद्धार(Turnaround) की पूरी प्रक्रिया का क्रमानुसार विवरण:

1. 2014 से पहले की स्थिति: 'एवरग्रीनिंग' और छुपा हुआ संकट

  • नियमों में छूट (Regulatory Forbearance): 2008 के वैश्विक वित्तीय संकट के बाद फंसे हुएकॉरपोरेट कर्जों को छिपाने के लिए पुनर्गठन (Restructuring) योजनाओं का सहारा लिया गया, जिससेडूबे हुए कर्ज कागजों में "सही" दिखते रहे।
  • डेटा की कमी: बैंकों के बीच तालमेल न होने के कारण बड़े कॉरपोरेट एक बैंक से कर्ज लेकर दूसरे बैंक कीदेनदारी चुकाते थे, जिसकी केंद्रीय निगरानी नहीं थी।

2. 2014–2015: CRILC डेटाबेस और पारदर्शी निगरानी की शुरुआत

  • CRILC का गठन (2014): आरबीआई ने ₹5 करोड़ से अधिक के सभी कर्जों के लिए Central Repository of Information on Large Credits बनाया। इससे किसी भी बड़े डिफ़ॉल्ट की जानकारीपूरे बैंकिंग तंत्र को तुरंत मिलने लगी।
  • राजनीतिक दखल पर रोक: बैंकों को कर्ज देने और कॉरपोरेट दबाव से मुक्त करने के स्पष्ट निर्देश दिए गए, जिससे व्यावसायिक आधार पर निर्णय लिए जा सकें।

3. 2015–2016: एसेट क्वालिटी रिव्यू (AQR) — पर्दे का हटना

  • सख्त ऑडिट (AQR): आरबीआई ने बैंकों की बैलेंस शीट का गहन ऑडिट शुरू किया। यदि किसी कंपनीका कर्ज एक बैंक में फंसा था, तो बाकी सभी बैंकों को उसे अनिवार्य रूप से NPA घोषित करना पड़ा।
  • छिपे हुए एनपीए बाहर आना: जो डूबा कर्ज पहले फाइलों में छुपा था, वह रिकॉर्ड पर आया। इसके चलतेबैंकों का ग्रॉस NPA 2015 के लगभग ₹2.8 लाख करोड़ से बढ़कर 2018 में ₹10 लाख करोड़ से ऊपरपहुंच गया।

4. 2016–2017: इंसॉल्वेंसी एंड बैंकरप्सी कोड (IBC) का ऐतिहासिक कानून

  • डिफ़ॉल्टरों पर सीधा नियंत्रण: 2016 में संसद ने IBC लागू किया। कानून ने दशकों पुरानी उस व्यवस्था कोसमाप्त कर दिया जहां प्रमोटर बैंकों का पैसा नहीं चुकाते थे लेकिन कंपनी पर उनका कब्जा रहता था।
  • बैंकिंग रेगुलेशन एक्ट में संशोधन (2017): केंद्र सरकार ने अध्यादेश लाकर आरबीआई को यह शक्ति दीकि वह बैंकों को सीधे निर्देश देकर बड़े डिफ़ॉल्टरों (जैसे भूषण स्टील, एस्सार स्टील) को दिवालिया अदालत(NCLT) में खींच सके।

5. 2017–2018: डाइवर्जेंस रिपोर्टिंग और निजी बैंक लीडरशिप पर सख्ती

  • डाइवर्जेंस नियम (15% से अधिक का अंतर): आरबीआई ने नियम बनाया कि यदि बैंक के बताए गए NPA और आरबीआई के ऑडिट में 15% से अधिक का अंतर मिला, तो उसे सार्वजनिक करना होगा।
  • निजी बैंकों पर नकेल: इस नए ऑडिटिंग नियम के कारण एक्सिस बैंक, आईसीआईसीआई बैंक और यसबैंक में हजारों करोड़ रुपये के अघोषित फंसे कर्जे पकड़े गए।
  • कार्यकाल विस्तार से इनकार: गलत खुलासों के चलते आरबीआई ने एक्सिस बैंक (शिखा शर्मा) और यसबैंक (राणा कपूर) के शीर्ष नेतृत्व को आगे विस्तार देने से मना कर दिया और उन्हें पद छोड़ना पड़ा।

6. 2018–2019: पुरानी एवरग्रीनिंग स्कीमों का खात्मा और सरकारी बैंकों का रीकैपिटलाइजेशन

  • 12 फरवरी 2018 का ऐतिहासिक सर्कुलर: आरबीआई के तत्कालीन गवर्नर उर्जित पटेल ने सभी पुरानेरिस्ट्रक्चरिंग विकल्पों (CDR, SDR आदि) को रद्द कर दिया। नियम बना कि बड़े कर्जों में 1 दिन की देरी भीडिफ़ॉल्ट मानी जाएगी।
  • बैंकों में नई पूंजी (Recapitalisation): एनपीए बाहर आने के बाद कमजोर हुए सरकारी बैंकों को बचानेके लिए केंद्र सरकार ने ₹3 लाख करोड़ से अधिक की पूंजी (Recapitalization Bonds) इंजेक्ट की, ताकि वे कर्ज देना बंद न करें।

7. 2019–2020: बैंकों का विलय (Consolidation) और रणनीतिक रेस्क्यू

  • पीएसयू बैंकों का महा-विलय: 27 सरकारी बैंकों का विलय कर उन्हें 12 बड़े, वित्तीय रूप से सक्षम बैंकों मेंबदल दिया गया।
  • ग्राहकों की सुरक्षा (यस बैंक और LVB): मार्च 2020 में यस बैंक और नवंबर 2020 में लक्ष्मी विलास बैंकके संकट के समय आरबीआई ने SBI कंसोर्टियम और डीबीएस बैंक (DBS Bank) के जरिए दोनों कासमाधान निकाला, जिससे एक भी आम ग्राहक का पैसा नहीं डूबा।

8. 2021 से अब तक: ऐतिहासिक सुधार और रिकॉर्ड मुनाफा

  • ट्विन बैलेंस शीट समस्या का समाधान: कॉरपोरेट कंपनियों की बैलेंस शीट हल्की हुई और बैंकों की बैलेंसशीट स्वच्छ हो गई।
  • एनपीए में भारी गिरावट: बैंकिंग क्षेत्र का ग्रॉस NPA अनुपात, जो 2018 में लगभग 11.2% था, घटकर 2% से नीचे (बहु-दशकीय निचले स्तर पर) आ गया।
  • रिकॉर्ड मुनाफा: सभी सार्वजनिक और निजी क्षेत्र के बैंक आज रिकॉर्ड लाभ दर्ज कर रहे हैं और उनके पासपूंजी पर्याप्तता अनुपात (CRAR) मानक सीमा से काफी ऊपर है।

निष्कर्ष

बैंकिंग संकट 2014 के बाद पैदा नहीं हुआ था, बल्कि 2004–2014 के बीच बांटे गए अनियंत्रित कर्जों कानतीजा था जिसे ढंक कर रखा गया था। 2014 के बाद CRILC, AQR, IBC और सख्त डाइवर्जेंस ऑडिट केजरिए पूरी बीमारी को पहले सतह पर लाया गया, उसकी सर्जरी की गई, और सरकारी पुनर्पूंजीकरण के साथ तंत्रको फिर से मजबूत बनाया गया।

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